Scientists' Contributions  
   

A critical analysis of the process and outcomes of the first round of air quality Reviews and Assessments in Great Britain.

C.I. Beattie1, J.W.S. Longhurst1, D.M. Elsom2 & N.K. Woodfield1

Introduction

Great Britain (all areas of the UK excluding Northern Ireland) has now completed a first round of Reviews and Assessments whereby local authorities have reviewed air quality in their local areas and assessed the likelihood of achieving a number of health based air quality objectives. Where air quality objectives are not likely to be achieved, local authorities are required to designate Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs) and put in place action plans to improve the local situation. Local authorities are currently undertaking the action planning stage of the process. This paper is a review of the first round of air quality reviews and assessments and reflects on some of the issues and lessons learnt prior to the next round of reviews and assessments, which is due for completion before the end of 2003.

Overview of legislation

The primary legislation for the process of air quality management is Part IV of the Environment Act 1995 (HM Government 1995), which required the preparation of a National Air Quality Strategy (section 80) and regulations that may make provision to implement the strategy (section 87) by the Secretary of State for the Environment. Before the passing of the Act, the then Department of the Environment (DoE) published two discussion papers for consultation, entitled 'Improving Air Quality' (1994) and 'Air Quality: Meeting the Challenge' (1995). The first paper discussed the policies and procedures required for the setting, achievement and maintenance of air quality standards. It recognised the need for an effects-based approach to air quality management expressed in terms of air quality standards and management regimes, tailored to local circumstances (NSCA, 1994). The effects-based approach was first introduced as a new policy approach to the formulation of AQSs in the 1990 Environment White Paper, This Common Inheritance (Department of the Environment 1990). The second discussion paper, 'Air Quality: Meeting the Challenge' (Department of the Environment et al 1995) was a revision of the first policy paper. Based on comments from the previous discussion paper, it proposed the placing of a statutory duty on all local authorities to review air quality regularly, not only the ones with designated areas of poor air quality. The paper also set out the Government's aim to achieve air quality standards by 2005.

The National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS) was published in March 1997 after some delay. The focus of the document was the establishment of health based standards for eight pollutants. The standards were established through the work of a government commissioned Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards (EPAQs). The Air Quality Regulations 1997 (HM Government 1998) subsequently provided the legal framework for standards and objectives for seven pollutants, excluding ozone from local AQM, to be achieved by 2005. The NAQS was scheduled to be reviewed by the end of 1999 but the timetable was brought forward a year by the incoming labour government. The review was designed to reflect developments in European legislation, technological and scientific advances, improved air pollution modelling techniques and an increasingly improving understanding of the economic and social issues involved. The revised strategy also slightly changed the UK air quality approach. Prior to the revision the NAQS was exclusively based on protecting human health. However the new UK Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (UK AQS: DETR et al, 2000) included the protection of the environment (i.e. vegetation and ecosystems), although these objectives are not under local regulation. Of the eight pollutants included in the NAQS, five objectives were tightened, two stayed static and one (PM10) was relaxed. Whilst the relaxation of the particulate objective was seen as a pragmatic response to uncertainty, the Government has acted in the case of benzene, 1,3-butadiene and carbon monoxide by changing the target date to 2003 (Table 1)

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The air quality management process under the EU Air Quality Framework Directive

The UK air quality management process progresses alongside the EU Air Quality Framework Directive. The Ambient Air Quality Framework Directive (96/62/EC) requires each member state to divide its territory into agglomerations (areas with a population exceeding 250,000) and other zones. Within each zone, a specific air quality assessment regime has to be established. In the UK this can be interpreted as individual or groups of local authorities (Elsom 1999). After making a preliminary assessment of air quality, authorities decide which pollutants have the potential to exceed Daughter Directive limit values. Limit values are set at concentrations which, are 'designed to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects on human health and the environment as a whole' (Council of the European Union 1996). The limits comprise both a concentration component and an averaging time component. In addition, a margin of tolerance is set which allows for higher concentrations initially. Where the Member State is below the margin of tolerance, it must still work towards the limit value but doesn't have to report to the Commission. Such a margin of tolerance specifies the period within which the pollutant levels would be reduced, step-wise, to the limit value or below, and is defined as the percentage of the limit value by which it may be exceeded (Council of the European Union 1996).

The Directive defines the required air quality information by specifying air quality monitoring strategies, sampling methods and quality assurance and control procedures. Having assessed air quality in agglomerations, authorities are required to submit an air quality improvement (action) plan and status report to the Commission, if a limit value is exceeded. A list of poor air quality areas across the European Community will be published annually and a report published every three years on the ambient air quality throughout the Community.

The first Daughter Directive came into force in July 1999, establishing legally binding limits for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particles and lead to be achieved by January 2005 and 2010. A common position on the second EU daughter directive was reached in November 2000 covering limit values for benzene and carbon monoxide and a target value for ozone. The remaining pollutants addressed in the Framework Directive are yet to be agreed.

The publication of EU limit values for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, PM10, lead, benzene and carbon monoxide has a direct effect on the setting of objectives in the member states. The EU objectives have an array of target dates, some being the beginning of 2005 whereas the UK NAQS was originally targeted for the end of 2005. The UK review has therefore altered the dates for benzene, 1,3-butadiene, carbon monoxide and lead to take account of this temporal difference. Other EU objectives such as nitrogen dioxide have a target date of 2010, leaving the UK in advance of other member states.

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Local action

The emphasis of delivering the requirements of the NAQS and UK AQS was action at a local level. Local government has a statutory duty to work towards the air quality objectives, and has subsequently been provided with new powers to assist in delivering the strategy (for example vehicle emissions testing). Controlling air pollution and thereby quality of air is not an entirely new responsibility for local authorities. Local government has been responsible for air emissions from those less complex industrial processes (or Part 'B' processes) identified by the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (HM Government 1990). The situation is slightly different in Scotland where the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for all prescribed processes. However, for the first time, local government in England is required to consider air pollution and subsequently air quality in an effects based approach. Emissions to air clearly arise from a variety of sources over varying spatial and temporal scales, and it is becoming increasingly challenging to integrate solutions into existing policy packages, particularly through the use of transport plans, land use plans, economic development plans and sustainable development plans.

Review and assessment

The first aspect of the LAQM regime is a review and assessment of air quality in the local authority's area. The government recommended a three-stage approach, whereby each stage of the review and assessment process increases in depth and complexity. This should be consistent with the risk of failing to achieve the air quality objectives (Department of the Environment, The Scottish Office & The Welsh Office 1997). The first stage of the process is essentially a desktop study of emissions sources within, and impacting on, the local authority area. Stage 2 introduces screening models and interpretation of available monitoring data. Stage 3 is a complex modelling and monitoring exercise assessing air quality concentrations against the specified objectives. Examples of reports produced at each stage of the process can be found at http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/examples/index.html At each stage pollutants can be omitted from the process where it can be shown that the air quality objectives are likely to be achieved. On completion of a third stage review and assessment, and in areas where air quality objectives are predicted to exceed by their target date, an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) must be designated. Where AQMAs have been designated, local authorities are required to prepare a written action plan illustrating how the air quality standards and objectives are to be achieved and improved upon in the designated area (DETR 1997a).

Prior to the publication of the National Air Quality Strategy, the probable timetable for the review and assessment process was that assessments would be complete by 1998 with action plans implemented thereafter. After 1997 and the late publication of the NAQS, Central Government proposed that local authorities should complete their Stage 1 review and assessments by the end of 1998, with the initial review and assessment phase (to Stage 3 where necessary) to be completed by the 31 December 1999. This timetable was initially extended to June 2000 and subsequently to the end of 2000. Where an AQMA is designated, a 12-month period for a further review and assessment of air quality in the AQMA is to be undertaken. All local authorities must undertake a further round of review and assessment of air quality before 31 December 2003.

It was initially anticipated that many (particularly rural) authorities would not proceed further than a Stage 1 assessment and that large metropolitan areas and cities would be most likely to declare AQMAs (Bartlett et al, 1997). It was not anticipated therefore that the majority of local authorities would require a Stage 3 assessment. The pollutants causing greatest challenges were initially anticipated to be nitrogen dioxide and PM10, although the level to which the annual mean nitrogen dioxide objective is predicted to be exceeded was never anticipated. Transport has long been recognised as the major contributor of emissions in locations requiring air quality management areas. However, the wide scale coincidence of concentrations above objective values and exposed populations was not anticipated.

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Support mechanisms for local authorities

Following publication of the NAQS, local authorities expressed concern about the lack of necessary tools or indeed expertise to undertake their AQM responsibilities effectively. Central government responded by making available national resources which local authorities could draw upon (Elsom 1999). Resources included specific guidance documents, Internet based information including monitored data, emissions inventories, and telephone and email help desks (Beattie et al, 2001b).

Paper-based guidance documents were the initial method of helping local authorities in the UK with their AQM tasks. They were published in 8 volumes, with G1-G4 covering the framework of the management process (DETR 1997a), developing local air quality action plans and strategies (DETR 1997b), air quality and traffic management (DETR 1997c) and air quality and land use planning (DETR 1997d). These were subsequently followed by a series of 4 technical guidance notes (TG1-4) offering advice on monitoring (DETR 1998a), emissions inventories (DETR 1998b), dispersion modelling (DETR 1998c) and a pollutant specific guidance document (DETR 1998d), which outlined specific methodologies for reviewing and assessing each pollutant.

Following the updating of NAQS to the UK Air Quality Strategy, the guidance documents were also updated in the same format as G1-4 (DETR & National Assembly for Wales 2000a; DETR & National Assembly for Wales 2000b; DETR & National Assembly for Wales 2000c; DETR & National Assembly for Wales 2000d) and TG1-4; (DETR, National Assembly for Wales & Scottish Executive 2000a; DETR, National Assembly for Wales & Scottish Executive 2000b; DETR, National Assembly for Wales & Scottish Executive 2000c; DETR, National Assembly for Wales & Scottish Executive 2000d). The Scottish Executive at the same time produced their own G series of guidance notes, SG1-4. These documents are available on http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/links.html.

A variety of other documents have also been provided for local authorities for example guidance on air quality management consultation (NSCA 1999) and advice on the designation of Air Quality Management Areas (NSCA 2000b) and land use planning and air quality considerations (RTPI 1999). More recently guidance on air quality action plans and strategies has been provided by the National Society for Clean Air (NSCA 2000a; NSCA 2001). These can be found at http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/centre/aqaps/index.html.

Other sources of information include a government co-ordinated Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) of automated analysers. A substantial number of AURN sites are funded by local authorities, rather than central government. These stations become part of the AURN once instrumentation and site operation procedures are approved. Central government provides telemetry to link the AURN sites with a central data collection point. The government provides a quality control service, but the cost of establishing and operating these sites remains largely with local government.

Pollution data from all AURN sites and other pollution monitoring networks, such as the national NO2 diffusion tube network comprising over 1100 tubes, are available via the National Air Quality Information Archive internet site established in April 1997 (http://www.airquality.co.uk). These data are considered to provide pollution levels indicative of thase experienced at similar sites in other urban areas. In preparation for implementing the EU Ambient Air Quality Framework Directive, the DETR is to expand the network of AURN monitoring sites (DETR et al, 2000). The AURN and other pollution monitoring networks have enabled background pollution concentrations (in 1x1 km grid squares maps) to be compiled for both current and future target years, which are also available at the above internet site (Elsom 1999).

In response to limited emissions inventory information available for local authorities, the National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI) was provided on the internet (see http://www.naei.org.uk). This inventory provides estimates of emissions of the key pollutants on a 1x1 km level basis. The internet site offers other key information such as emission factors for vehicles according to type and speed. The Government also commissioned ten detailed emissions inventories of major urban areas (for example,London Research Centre 1997) including inventories for Merseyside, Bristol, Southampton and Portsmouth and Swansea and Port Talbot.

Also in response to local authority needs, an existing screening tool, the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB), which had been developed by the Department of Transport primarily for use in assessing the environmental impact of road schemes, was updated for use by the air quality community to provide direct comparisons with air quality objectives. The updated version was then produced in spreadsheet format by Stanger Science and Environment for use by local authorities and made available free on the internet (http://www.stanger.co.uk). In addition to this tool, the model AEOLIUS used to assess air pollution in low dispersing canyon streets, pioneered by the Meteorological Office was also updated to reflect its new role in the review and assessment process http://www.meto.gov.uk/environment/aeolius1.html).

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Helpdesks and associated web sites were also set up for use by local authorities in their tasks of implementing the NAQS and subsequent UK AQS. These include:

How have local authorities fared in the review and assessment process?

This section will briefly outline some of the main outcomes of the review and assessment process. The data includes that generated by the authors on behalf of DEFRA and the devolved administrations1 and also results from a 5 year research programme looking at the implementation of the Environment Act Part IV by urban local authorities in England2. The surveys have included environmental professionals, who have been responsible for pollution legislation within local authorities and are in most cases co-ordinating their air quality management efforts, as well as other local authority professionals. Contemporary air pollution sources are diverse and hence solutions to tackle problem locations will need to come from a variety of sources including transport planning, land use planning and economic development sectors as well as agencies and bodies external to the local authority such as health authorities, the Environment Agency and Highways Agency. Hence each of these sectors have been surveyed annually since 1998 with regard to their involvement in the management of local air quality (see http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/research/urban). Case studies of authorities identified as advanced in their approach to air quality management responsibilities have been undertaken. Advanced as defined by the authors is where local authorities have shown an integration of air quality issues into other planning processes as well as competence in the technical aspects of monitoring and modelling.

Table 2 illustrates the pollutants taken further than stage 1 of the process by all local authorities in the UK. This indicates the pollutants causing greatest problems in relation to achieving the health based objectives and highlights some of the regional differences. In all cases, nitrogen dioxide, PM10 and sulphur dioxide have involved the most work by local authorities within the review and assessment process. Sulphur dioxide has been a particular problem in Northern Ireland where there are still large areas of domestic coal burning. Carbon monoxide has been more of an issue in London, which has generally higher traffic flows and low traffic speeds in the congested urban centres.

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AQMAs designated

By the end of March 2002, 94 local authorities have declared AQMAs with a further 31 anticipating declaring over the next few months3. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is the pollutant for which predicted exceedences are greatest, particularly with respect to the annual mean objective. Coupled with this is a widespread anticipated exceedence of the short-term PM10 objective, both of which are largely as a result of traffic emissions. Over 95% of AQMAs are to be designated as a result of traffic emissions. Traffic congestion exerts the greatest influence on the AQMA decision-making process within local authorities, and is therefore likely to be a significant target for action in air quality policy across England, Scotland and Wales.

Four of the seven regulated pollutants are predicted to remain below their objective concentrations, and only predicted exceedences of the sulphur dioxide (SO2) objectives will require a small proportion (10%), of authorities to declare AQMAs other than for nitrogen dioxide and particulates. Those AQMAs to be declared as a result of SO2 are due to industrial point source emissions, or combinations of emissions from a number of such point sources, or other sources such as shipping. Of all anticipated AQMAs in the UK, a quarter of declaring local authorities will require a single area of designation for one pollutant, with 16% of authorities likely to require more than one AQMA for a single pollutant, and 11% anticipating a single AQMA for more than one pollutant. Local authorities have not received prescriptive guidance on the designation of AQMAs in the UK, although informal guidance has been developed to assist authorities with the process (NSCA 2000b).

Of the AQMAs declared and anticipated, a suite of common AQMA typologies have emerged. Most AQMAs will include urban road networks, or a number of individual streets collectively, and authorities are choosing to declare individual roads and specific receptors exposed to exceedences along them, as well as pockets and areas of land in between road networks. A number of authorities, in smaller conurbations or semi-urban or rural locations have identified, through monitoring and in some cases less advanced modelling techniques, small areas of predicted exceedences along individual high streets. Some rural authorities, such as Salisbury DC in Wiltshire, South Lakeland DC in Cumbria and Harborough DC in Leicestershire have designated local canyon-like streets with residential property close to the carriageway as AQMAs, where insufficient dispersion as a result of the street topography and slow moving traffic is predicted to cause future exceedences. The size of AQMAs varies from tens of square metres to square kilometres in area.

Contrary to anticipation in the National Air Quality Strategy 1997, the motorway network across the UK, where traffic flows and HGV proportions are amongst the highest on the UK road network, have not led to significant numbers of AQMAs. This appears due to there being sufficient dispersion due to the local terrain, or because there is no risk of public exposure. AQMAs as a result of traffic emissions from motorways are mainly within the South and South East regions of England. Concentrations of NO2 and PM10 quickly decrease from the kerbside and public exposure is not so prevalent in close proximately to motorways in comparison to urban networks of roads and minor highways4. However,a number of authorities anticipate AQMA designations along specific corridors or certain distances either side of motorways.

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Local Authority Practice

Technical capabilities

The results of the questionnaire surveys show a gradual increase in air quality monitoring practice within local authorities over the four years of the study. By 2001, all local authorities were undertaking some form of monitoring with the pollutants monitored reflecting those causing greatest problems in achieving the air quality objectives. In the survey undertaken by Elsom and Crabbe (Elsom & Crabbe 1995) in 1994, 55% of the urban sample of local authorities did not have permanent real time monitoring equipment and hence did not have the capacity to assess with confidence air pollution concentrations within their area. By 2001 91% of urban local authorities had real time analysers.

Modelling practices by local authorities show even more categorically the increases in use of tools for air quality management. In the 1994 survey of local authorities (Elsom & Crabbe 1995) 5% had utilised some sort of modelling. In 2001, this had increased to 99% with a gradual increase in the intervening years. The greatest increases in types of models used by local authorities were in ADMS urban, a complex dispersion modelling system and in DMRB, a screening model used most often in Stage 2 of the review and assessment.

Apart from some issues of obtaining funding and support for air quality management tools, the technical capabilities of urban authorities for the implementation of review and assessment has increased considerably. Local authorities technical capabilities are (with exceptions) viewed by the local authorities involved in case study analysis as sufficient for the successful implementation of the technical aspects of air quality management.

Within authority collaboration

Questionnaire surveys have shown that under a half of urban local authorities have an internal group or project team that spends at least some of its time dealing with air quality issues. However, the remit of these groups varies significantly, which cannot be identified in detail through questionnaire surveys. The remit of the majority of the groups that environmental professionals are involved in, included review and assessment, or action planning/ strategies within their remit. From the case study authorities it can be shown that the smaller authorities had less need to meet formally. Departments were generally much smaller, and often just one person within transport or land use planning was responsible for all air quality implications of their profession. However, in larger authorities it is difficult to foresee how different policy areas could integrate on a day to day basis without formally meeting up and discussing each others agendas and requirements.

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Between local authority collaboration

Questionnaire surveys have shown that particularly for environmental health professionals, regional working of some kind is widespread. Other professions are not as involved in regional groups undertaking some air quality work. There is no clear trend as to whether regional initiatives are increasing or decreasing. The case studies attempted to decipher which initiatives may be more successful in integrating different local authority working practices. Regional working was shown to have two distinct facets, at a policy level, and at an officer working level.

Information systems or the dissemination of information to the public, between departments within local government and between local authorities and outside agencies have not really evolved at all over the four years of the study. There have been slight increases in most of the methods of disseminating information to the public over the four years, but no major change in approach. The only method that has shown substantial increases in use is council internet sites. The majority of councils now have their own internet site with some form of air quality information on. There has been even less progress in the methods of disseminating information to other departments within local authorities, and to neighbouring authorities and outside agencies.

Collaboration between local authorities and stakeholders

Outside agencies and bodies have been involved in the review and assessment process to varying degrees. Health authorities' involvement seems to have tailed off in 2000 and 2001, although there has been an increase in the amount of health advice given out relating to air pollution. There has also been an increase in the use of information from air quality studies being made available at regional groups and also used in the review and assessment process.

The Environment Agency, who regulate large industrial sources in England and Wales, has in some areas taken a proactive approach to managing air pollution sources in their jurisdiction. Throughout the four years of the survey their input into local air quality management has remained static, with a base of monitoring and modelling to build on. Over 90% of Environment Agency respondents had supplied information to local authorities even in 1998. The Highways Agency, who oversee the management of motorways and trunk roads in England and Wales, has however been less involved. In contrast to the Environment Agency, the Highways Agency as a whole has little previous knowledge or expertise in the field of air quality monitoring or management. In many cases, exceedances of the air quality objectives are caused by motorways or trunk roads and with little involvement, it is difficult to foresee how solutions can be found and implemented in time for the objective deadlines.

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Discussion

Local authorities have gained capacity and confidence in the review and assessment process having started from a heterogeneous position. Surprisingly, the most difficulties occurred in policy and communication within local authorities. Questionnaire surveys have shown that local authorities do not appear to have the capability to manage air quality issues between local government departments. Of the non environmental health local authority functions, transport planners have generally been more involved in the process than other professionals. This may be because of funding incentives through the LTP process. There were also problems in communicating the outcomes of the review and assessment process to the public.

Local authorities have progressed a long way since the publication of the first NAQS in 1997. Government Guidance issued for the process aimed to provide some consistency to the AQM process. However, survey data has illustrated a divergence in capability and achievement in LAQM practice within urban local authorities in England. A related study investigating rural local authorities (Ing et al, 2001) has shown urban areas to generally be in advance of rural authorities suggesting an even greater divergence in practice between local authorities in the UK. A number of reasons may have caused this divergence, notably the greater experience of urban authorities, in addressing more acute air pollution problems. Urban authorities are more likely to operate as a single tier authority (i.e. as a unitary authority), with more efficient communication mechanisms. Rural authorities, in contrast, are more financially constrained and have a potential absence of historical air pollution monitoring and modelling data and officer capability. With AQMAs being declared in smaller, rural locations these constraints are likely to hinder the action planning process.

The amended timescale for reviewing and assessing air quality has caused problems for integrating air quality objectives into transport planning processes seen as many as the delivery mechanism for solutions. The UK has over the timescale of the first round of reviews and assessments experienced a rapid change in relation to transport policy. The Government White Paper 'A New Deal for Transport: Better for everyone', published in 1998, promised innovative approaches to transport planning. It emphasised the responsibility of local authorities to produce Local Transport Plans (LTPs), designed to integrate different transport modes and respond to local circumstances. LTPs replaced the former Transport Policy and Programmes (TPP) system for allocating resources for local transport capital expenditure. LTPs require environmental and sustainability consideration, of which air quality is a major component (Beattie et al, 2001a). The first complete round of Local Transport Plans (LTPs) was completed in July 2000. The LTP process bids for funding for the next 5 years and in many cases the reviews and assessments were not completed in time.

There has been limited involvement of the planning community in the air quality review and assessment process as a whole. The potential success of future air quality action plans and their effective implementation to improve local air quality within designated AQMAs will require active participation and action on the part of the land-use planning community, working collaboratively with transport planning and other disciplines within the local authority. This will be assisted by the development of local air quality strategies for individual local authorities and the development of protocols for ensuring that air quality considerations become an integral aspect of local authority planning and development processes and functions.

Of the 407 authorities in Great Britain, over 30% will require AQMAs within their area. The paper has illustrated the diversity of AQMAs in spatial scale and sources of pollutants. The population exposed within the AQMAs in GB is unknown and this is a topic for future research.

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Conclusions

Despite some initial difficulties in the first round of air quality review and assessments in the UK, it is evident from the data collected that the LAQM process is likely to deliver improved air quality. The great quantity of air quality information assembled and disseminated, together with the monitoring and modelling undertaken in direct response to the AQM review and assessment process has been immense.

Traffic emissions are the most significant source of predicted exceedences, and AQMAs are being declared alongside motorways and trunk roads, across road networks, as well as along individual road sections where low traffic speeds, high percentages of HGV traffic and canyon-like street topographies lead to poor air dispersion.

Local authorities are at the stage of writing and implementing action plans following designation of AQMAs. The review and assessment process up to designation has been mainly a scientific process, although collaboration has been required with other departments and outside agencies, particularly for information such as traffic and health data. However, as local authorities move into implementing solutions through air quality action planning, the collaborative aspects of the process will be principal to the success of air quality management.

In the authors' opinions the LAQM process in GB is an effective one. The GB experience and process is, in part, a transferable model and this is a useful and effective process for others to consider in meeting their air quality obligations and requirements. An evaluation of the review and assessment process in GB has recently been undertaken by the authors (in collaboration with others) on behalf of UK Government and the devolved administrations. The outcomes of this work can be found at http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/review/index.html. The authors intend to continue to monitor the progress of AQM implementation as the review and assessment process moves on. This will provide further insight into the often complex solutions required in improving local air quality. Readers interested in collaborative studies of the implementation of the AQM process in Europe under the Framework 6, or elsewhere in the world, are invited to contact the authors.

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References

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